Prevalence of occupational health hazards, stress level and associated factors among traffic police officers in Delhi: a cross-sectional study

INTRODUCTION

Occupational health is a vital component of public health that focuses on the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental, and social well-being of workers across all occupations. In the modern era of rapid urbanization, industrial growth, and motorization, occupational environments have become increasingly complex and hazardous, particularly for professionals engaged in outdoor and public-facing duties. Among these, traffic police officers constitute a distinctive occupational group exposed to a multitude of environmental, ergonomic, and psychosocial stressors that place them at elevated risk for adverse health outcomes.¹

Traffic police officers play a critical role in maintaining urban mobility, enforcing traffic regulations, preventing road traffic accidents, and ensuring public safety. Their responsibilities extend beyond traffic regulation to include accident management, crowd control, emergency response, and public education on road safety. In large metropolitan cities, these duties are performed under challenging conditions characterized by high traffic density, unpredictable road user behaviour, prolonged working hours, and constant exposure to environmental pollutants.² Unlike other law enforcement personnel, traffic police officers are required to perform most of their duties outdoors, often standing for extended periods at busy intersections with limited opportunities for rest or recovery.

Delhi, the national capital of India, is one of the most congested and polluted cities in the world. The exponential growth in population, rapid urban expansion, and a sharp increase in motor vehicle ownership have significantly intensified traffic congestion and environmental pollution in the city. According to governmental and environmental reports, Delhi consistently records air pollution levels exceeding national and international safety standards, particularly with respect to particulate matter (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀), nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide.³ Traffic police officers stationed at road intersections are continuously exposed to these pollutants, placing them at increased risk of respiratory morbidity and other pollution-related health problems.

Vehicular emissions represent one of the most significant occupational hazards for traffic police officers. Prolonged inhalation of toxic gases and particulate matter has been associated with reduced lung function, chronic bronchitis, asthma, and other respiratory disorders.⁴ Several studies conducted in India and neighbouring South Asian countries have reported a higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms among traffic police personnel compared to administrative or indoor workers.^5,6 Despite the availability of protective measures such as face masks, their use remains inconsistent due to discomfort, inadequate supply, lack of enforcement, and limited awareness regarding occupational health protection.⁷

Noise pollution is another major occupational hazard encountered by traffic police officers. Continuous exposure to traffic noise, including engine sounds, honking, and sirens, often exceeds recommended occupational exposure limits. Chronic noise exposure has been linked to hearing impairment, tinnitus, hypertension, sleep disturbances, irritability, and reduced concentration.⁸ Noise-induced stress not only affects physical health but also contributes significantly to psychological strain, potentially impairing decision-making abilities and increasing the risk of errors during duty hours.

In addition to environmental hazards, traffic police officers are exposed to substantial ergonomic risks. Prolonged standing, repetitive hand movements for signalling, awkward postures, and inadequate ergonomic infrastructure contribute to musculoskeletal disorders such as low back pain, neck and shoulder strain, knee pain, and varicose veins.⁹ The absence of proper rest shelters, insufficient seating arrangements, and limited rotation of duty assignments further exacerbate these problems. Studies have consistently demonstrated a high prevalence of musculoskeletal complaints among traffic police officers, which often lead to reduced work efficiency, absenteeism, and long-term disability.¹⁰

Extreme climatic conditions further compound the occupational risks faced by traffic police officers in Delhi. During summer months, ambient temperatures frequently exceed 45°C, exposing officers to heat stress, dehydration, fatigue, and heat-related illnesses. Conversely, during winter, prolonged exposure to cold temperatures combined with dense smog adversely affects respiratory and cardiovascular health.¹¹ Climate-related occupational stress is an emerging concern, particularly in the context of global climate change, which is expected to increase the frequency and intensity of heatwaves and extreme weather events.¹²

Beyond physical and environmental hazards, psychosocial stress constitutes a significant component of occupational risk among traffic police officers. The nature of traffic policing requires constant vigilance, rapid decision-making, and frequent interactions with the public, including confrontations with aggressive or non-compliant road users. Exposure to road traffic accidents, injuries, and fatalities can have profound psychological effects, contributing to emotional exhaustion, anxiety, and burnout.¹³ Irregular shift patterns, extended duty hours, limited social support, and perceived lack of organizational recognition further intensify work-related stress.

Occupational stress among traffic police officers has been associated with a range of adverse mental health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, irritability, and reduced job satisfaction.¹⁴ Chronic stress not only affects psychological well-being but also has physiological consequences, such as increased risk of hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and impaired immune function.¹⁵ Furthermore, stress-related coping behaviours, including tobacco and alcohol use, have been reported among police personnel, potentially exacerbating existing health problems.¹⁶

Despite the recognized vulnerability of traffic police officers to multiple occupational health hazards, their health and safety needs have often been overlooked in occupational health policies and programs. Most occupational health research and interventions have traditionally focused on industrial workers, healthcare professionals, or factory-based occupations, with limited attention given to public service workers such as traffic police.¹⁷

In India, systematic and region-specific data on the combined burden of occupational health hazards and stress among traffic police officers remain scarce, particularly in high-risk urban environments like Delhi.

Objectives

Objectives of the current study are to assess the prevalence of occupational health hazards and stress among the traffic police officers. Another objective was to seek association between stress and selected demographic variables of the traffic police officers.

METHODS

Study design and research approach

A quantitative research approach was adopted for the present study, employing a descriptive cross-sectional research design. This design was considered appropriate as it allows for the systematic assessment of the prevalence of occupational health hazards and perceived stress among traffic police officers at a single point in time without manipulating study variables.¹⁸ Cross-sectional designs are widely used in occupational health research to determine the burden of health conditions and associated factors within a defined population.¹⁹

Study setting

The study was conducted in selected traffic control points across different regions of Delhi. These locations were chosen because they represent high-traffic zones where police officers are routinely exposed to vehicular pollution, noise, extreme climatic conditions, and prolonged standing duties. Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the traffic police headquarters, Todapur, Delhi. The selected setting ensured accessibility to the target population and feasibility of data collection within the stipulated time frame.

Study period

The study was carried out over a period of approximately three months, from 29 September 2025 to 21 December 2025.

Study population

The study population comprised traffic police officers working in the Delhi traffic police department who were actively engaged in field duties. Traffic police officers are a specialized unit of the police force responsible for traffic regulation, enforcement of road safety laws, accident management, and public interaction, placing them at higher occupational risk compared to administrative police personnel.

Sample size and sampling technique

A sample size of 140 traffic police officers was included in the study. The sample size was estimated using Cochran’s formula, considering a prevalence rate of 12% based on previous literature, a 95% confidence level, and a margin of error of 5%.⁶ Although the calculated sample size was 160, 140 participants were included due to feasibility constraints and availability during the data collection period.

A non-probability purposive sampling technique was used to select participants. This technique was appropriate as it enabled the inclusion of officers who met specific eligibility criteria and were available and willing to participate at the time of data collection.¹⁸

Inclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria included the traffic police officers working in Delhi, posted on field duty for at least one year within last three years and able to read and understand Hindi or English and willing to participate in their study.

Exclusion criteria

Traffic police personnel engaged exclusively in administrative duties. Officers with less than one year of field experience during the last three years. Officers unwilling to participate in the study

Data collection instruments

Data were collected using three structured instruments:

Section I: socio-demographic profile

This section included 16 items assessing age, gender, religion, marital status, type of family, monthly family income, educational status, years of service, duration of daily road duty, physical activity, frequency of health checkups, recent health problems, past medical and surgical history, use of protective equipment, and substance use habits.

Section II: occupational health hazard assessment questionnaire

A self-structured Likert-type questionnaire was developed to assess the prevalence of occupational health hazards. The tool comprised three major domains:

Physical health hazards (respiratory, gastrointestinal, eye, skin, musculoskeletal, auditory, and general health issues); social health hazards; mental health hazards.

Responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale ranging from never to always. Scores indicating frequent or consistent occurrence were considered indicative of the presence of occupational health hazards.

Section III: perceived stress scale (PSS-14)

Stress levels were assessed using the Perceived Stress Scale-14, developed by Cohen et al.²⁰ The PSS-14 measures the degree to which individuals perceive situations in their lives as stressful. Scores range from 0 to 56 and are categorized as low, moderate, or high perceived stress.

Data collection procedure

After obtaining ethical clearance from the Institutional Ethics Committee of Jamia Hamdard, formal permission ref no. 12/25(11/11/2025) was secured from the traffic police headquarters. Participants were briefed about the purpose of the study, and written informed consent was obtained.

Data were collected using a paper-and-pen method, ensuring privacy and confidentiality. Each participant completed the questionnaire under the supervision of the investigator. Following data collection, an educational pamphlet on the prevention of occupational health hazards was distributed to all participants.

Ethical considerations

Ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice were strictly followed.²¹ Participants were assured of anonymity and confidentiality, and they were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Data were coded to protect participant identity.

Statistical analysis

Data were coded and entered statistical software for analysis. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were used to summarize socio-demographic, occupational, and psychological variables.

Inferential statistics were applied to examine associations between psychological distress and selected socio-demographic and occupational factors. The chi-square test was used to determine statistical associations between categorical variables. A p value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

The results of the present study are based on data collected from 140 traffic police officers working in selected regions of Delhi. The findings are organized according to the study objectives and presented under the following subsections: demographic characteristics, prevalence of occupational health hazards, perceived stress levels, and association between stress and selected demographic variables.

The demographic profile of the participants revealed that most traffic police officers belonged to the 36-45 years age group (35.7%), followed by those aged 56-60 years (24.3%) and 26-35 years (21.4%). Most participants were male (88.6%), while 11.4% were female. Regarding marital status, 95.7% were married.

In terms of educational qualification, 47.1% had completed higher secondary education, 37.1% were graduates, and 2.9% were postgraduates. Nearly half of the participants (45%) had more than 15 years of service in the traffic police department. A majority (76.4%) reported a monthly family income exceeding ₹60,000.

Regarding work-related characteristics, most officers reported 8-10 hours of daily road duty, with limited opportunities for rest during shifts. A substantial proportion reported irregular health checkups and inconsistent use of personal protective equipment such as masks and earplugs.

Overall, 37.9% of traffic police officers reported experiencing one or more occupational health hazards.

Among the three major categories assessed, mental health hazards were the most prevalent (80.83%), followed by social health hazards (74.84%) and physical health hazards.

Stress levels were assessed using the perceived stress scale-14 (PSS-14). The obtained stress scores ranged within the possible score limits of the scale.

The mean perceived stress score was 15.89, indicating an overall low level of perceived stress among participants. The distribution of stress levels showed that: 62.9% of traffic police officers experienced low stress. 35.7% experienced moderate stress. Only 1.4% experienced high stress.

These findings suggest that while most officers reported low stress levels, a notable proportion experienced moderate stress.

Physical health hazards

Within the domain of physical health hazards, the most frequently reported problems were: respiratory complaints, including breathlessness, cough, and throat irritation. Gastrointestinal problems, such as acidity and indigestion. Eye-related problems, including redness, irritation, and watering

Other reported physical issues included noise-related hearing problems, skin irritation, musculoskeletal pain (particularly back, neck, and knee pain), and general health complaints such as fatigue and headaches.

Social health hazards

Social health hazards were commonly reported and included: reduced participation in social activities; strained family relationships due to long and irregular duty hours; feelings of social isolation; limited time for family and recreation.

A significant proportion of participants reported difficulty balancing work and family responsibilities.

Mental health hazards

Mental health hazards were highly prevalent among participants. The most commonly reported issues included: irritability during traffic duty; anxiety and persistent worry; difficulty concentrating while on duty; sleep disturbances; mood swings and episodes of anger. These findings indicate a substantial psychological burden associated with traffic policing duties.

Fisher’s Exact test was used to determine the association between stress level among traffic police officers and selected background variables such as age, gender, religion, marital status, type of family, family monthly income.

*Significant- p value <0.05.

*Significant- p value <0.05

There was no significant association observed between stress level with selected background variables such as age, gender, religion, marital status, type of family, family monthly income.

Fisher’s extract test was used to find association between the stress among traffic police officers and their selected demographic variables and found that there was significant association between the stress level among traffic police officers and their education (p=0.014) and substance use (p=0.047) where as there is no significant association between stress and total service period in traffic police department ,duration of road duty, engage in regular physical activity, frequency of health checkups, health issues in last 3 months, past medical and surgical history.

DISCUSSION

The present study aimed to assess the prevalence of psychological distress and its associated factors among traffic police officers in an urban metropolitan area of India. The findings reveal a high burden of psychological distress, with anxiety emerging as the most prevalent condition, followed by stress and depression. These results underscore the significant mental health challenges faced by traffic police officers and highlight the urgent need for targeted mental health interventions within this occupational group.

The present study reveals that out of 140 traffic police officers, more than one-third of the traffic police officers (37.90%) experience occupational health hazards. These findings are consistent with the similar cross-sectional study by conducted by Meena et al aimed to assess morbidity and prevalence of risk factors among police officers and found that the overall prevalence of health complaints among police personnel in the National capital region of India is 49.6%, with common complaints related to cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems.²² Similarly, a cross-sectional study by Jahan et al concluded that traffic police reported high prevalence of ocular, respiratory and auditory complaints and also these were more prevalent physical health problems among traffic police officers.⁷

The present study reveals that out of 140 traffic police officers, among physical health issues, respiratory problems are most common (36.71%), followed by gastrointestinal (34.39%) and eye-related problems; other issues include noise-related problems, skin issues, musculoskeletal symptoms (25.92%), and general problems. The findings of the present study were consistent with the previous a study by Mishra and Purushothama, investigated the prevalence of occupational health symptoms among traffic police personnel in Mangaluru. Their results showed that respiratory symptoms were reported by 51.2%, eye-related problems by 61.6%, and auditory complaints by a significant proportion of the officers, and other findings suggest that health issues among traffic police are common but generally non-severe.⁵ However findings are contrast with study conducted by Dhakal et al which aimed to assess health hazards due to occupational traffic police officers at Kathmandu. Their findings revealed high rates of physical health issues like musculoskeletal pain (87.8%), ocular problems (72.3% burning/tearful eyes), and depression (58.8%), contrasting sharply with the present Delhi study (n=140), where mental health hazards dominate at 80.83%, followed by social (74.84%) and lower physical hazards (27.37%).²³

The present study reveals that out of 140 traffic police officers, social and psychological challenges are highly prevalent, with the majority reporting social withdrawal, difficulty in social participation, strained relationships, social isolation, and emotional disturbances such as mood swings and anger. In line with present study, a systematic review study by Sherwood et al identifies low social support from colleagues as the top risk factor for depression, anxiety, PTSD, and burnout, alongside individual traits like neuroticism and avoidant coping, organizational issues (high demands, low rewards), and operational stressors (trauma exposure).²⁴

The present study also revealed that the irritation during traffic management ranks as the highest mental health hazard, followed by anxiety due to heavy traffic, loss of concentration, sleep disturbances, and memory lapses. In line with present study, a cross sectional study by Kumar and Varma, aimed to assess mental health and related issues among drivers due to traffic congestion and found that it significantly impairs mental health, with positive correlations between mental health and quality of life (r=0.329, p<0.01) and negative links to depression (r=-0.371, p<0.01), anxiety (r=-0.331, p<0.01), and stress (r=-0.344, p<0.01).²⁵ Similarly, a study by Beutel et al conducted a longitudinal study demonstrates that baseline noise annoyance particularly daytime road/aircraft and nighttime neighbourhood sources predicts new-onset depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbance at follow-up, with vulnerabilities heightened among women, younger adults, and lower SES groups, mirroring the Delhi traffic police findings where irritation (top mental hazard), anxiety from heavy traffic, concentration loss, sleep disturbances, and memory lapses prevail amid constant noise exposure.²⁶

The present study depicts that the majority 62.9% of respondents experience low stress levels, while over one-third report moderate stress (35.7%). Only a very small proportion (1.4%) experience high stress. This suggests that overall stress levels among the respondents are generally low to moderate, with severe stress being uncommon. among traffic police. These findings are consistent with the previous cross sectional research study conducted by Raju et al examined the stress levels among police personnel, their findings showed that 51.0% of the respondents experienced normal/low stress, 31.84% had mild stress, 16.73% reported moderate stress, and only 0.41% exhibited severe stress.²⁷

The present study reveals that the association between prevalence of stress level with demographic variable among traffic police officers and found that there is no significant association between stress levels and variables such as age, gender, religion, marital status, type of family, and family income, whereas a significant association exists between stress levels and education (p=0.014) as well as substance use (p=0.047). But no significant association was found between stress levels and service period, duration of road duty, physical activity, frequency of health checkups, recent health issues, or past medical/surgical history. Consequently, the findings of the present study were consistent with the previous a cross-sectional study conducted by Ghising et al aimed to assess occupational stress and its associated factors among traffic police in Nepal and found that moderate occupational stress in 81.9% of participants, significantly associated with age (p=0.008) and education (p=0.044), plus factors like shift work, job pressure, delayed promotions, low salary, transfers, and family disruption.¹⁴

Despite its strengths, the study has certain limitations. The use of a non-probability purposive sampling technique limits the generalizability of the findings. The study relied on self-reported data, which may be subject to reporting bias or social desirability bias, particularly regarding stress and substance use. The cross-sectional design precludes establishing causal relationships between occupational hazards and stress. Environmental exposure levels (e.g., air pollution or noise levels) were not objectively measured.

Implications for nursing practice

The findings of this study highlight the critical role of community health and occupational health nurses in promoting the well-being of traffic police officers. Nurses can: Conduct regular health assessments and early screening for occupational illnesses; Provide counselling and stress management support; Educate traffic police officers on preventive measures and healthy lifestyle practices; Advocate for safer working environments and occupational health policies.

Nurses can also play a key role in multidisciplinary occupational health teams working with police departments.

CONCLUSION

Traffic police officers are exposed to a wide range of occupational health hazards, with a substantial proportion experiencing physical, social, and mental health problems. Mental health hazards were the most prevalent, followed by social and physical health hazards, indicating that psychological and psychosocial risks are prominent concerns in traffic policing.

Although most participants reported low perceived stress levels, a considerable proportion experienced moderate stress. The presence of mental health symptoms despite low perceived stress scores suggests possible normalization of stress, underreporting, or adaptive coping mechanisms among traffic police officers. The significant association of perceived stress with educational status and substance use highlights the role of individual factors in stress perception and coping.

Recommendations

Future studies are recommended to: employ longitudinal designs to assess long-term health outcomes among traffic police officers; use probability sampling techniques for better generalizability; incorporate objective measurements of environmental exposures such as air and noise pollution; evaluate the effectiveness of intervention programs aimed at reducing occupational stress and health hazards; conduct comparative studies between traffic police officers and other occupational groups.

Funding: No funding sources

Conflict of interest: None declared

Ethical approval: The study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee

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